Assistants' Notes: Sight and the Photographer.

Sight and the Photographer.

           IT goes without saying that sight is the most important bodily function from a photographic point of view. One might imagine an armless, legless, deaf or dumb person performing some job or other connected with the business, and even one with deficiency of intellect might posses some little photographic skill, bat a blind photographer is impossible.
           It follows that a photographer's eyes, good or bad, should not be neglected, but accorded at least a modicum of intelligent consideration. A good many pros. hold the belief that the practice of their craft is in itself sufficient ultimately to damage the sight, and judging by the number of workers one meets whose eyes are not so good as they might be, the belief seems reasonable. On the other hand, there are craftsmen of ripe age whose sight is still perfect in spite of yean of hard work. The fact is that photography can – not must – damage or even destroy the sight of anyone engaged at it, the damage usually being brought about by circumstances many of which are in themselves inconspicuous and therefore unsuspected.
           These circumstances depend on the nature of the work, each branch of the business having its own peculiar sources of possible eye strain. In the studio the eye may suffer from constant straining at a too thick or coarse focusing screen, or focusing with the lens stopped down. This is a small thing, but in a very busy shop when the operator may be behind the camera for bourn at a stretch, the strain will tell. Where roach focusing has to be done, as much light as passable should be allowed through lens and screen, and the work done smartly. Indecision ceases strain, and does not improve the final definition of the picture.
           The continual itching from abort to long focus, occasioned by looking first at the sitter and than at the screen, may tire an eye but if the eyes (and the general health also) are this should prove more of an exercise than a strain.
           Working with artificial light, an operator may damage his sight by allowing the light to fall directly on his face too often; in other words, by looking long or often at the lamp. Continual witching on and off from full light to semi-darkness, as also going in and oat between studio and plate-changing room, will leave its mark on the sight if carried on to a great extent. The moral here is to keep a fair amount of light in the studio all the time, and have an assistant changing. The latter can keep his or her gaze away from the bright end of the studio without any trouble.
           In the dark-room the red or yellow lamp is often blamed for tired or failing eyes. This is not strictly right, though the position and strength of the coloured light is very often to blame. A lamp should never be in a position to sand direct light into the eye when working, and for this reason a hanging lamp, shedding all its light downwards, is to be recommended. The strength of the light should be as great as the sensitive materials will permit. With regard to the printing room, I would say to those who can please themselves: Discard bromide for gaslight, have as much light as you would in your drawing-room, and be comfortable.
           Where yellow or red light is compulsory all walls should be painted vary light: it will obviate much eyestrain in groping about for things which are invisible.
With printing and retouching direct light is mostly used, but in neither case does it – so far as my experience and observation go hart the eye to the same extent as in the case of the dark-room lamp. The difference is this: in one case the eye is working with the image supplied by the direct light and nothing else, in the other the direct rays are worrying the eye and distracting it from its work. This can continue for a long time without the victim being aware of it, even though the eyes and the work may be suffering.
           For retouching, the use of direct light, however, is not compulsory; many workers prefer to work against a white or tinted reflector, and one retoucher I know claims that this practice is repairable for his sight being as good as it was twenty years ago. Retouching with weak light, particularly if the negative is yellow or dense ceases eye strain, while the remarks on dark-room lamps apply also to extraneous light near a retouching desk. Working on very small beads is apt to be trying, and for this a magnifier may lessen the strain, bat it should not be used habitually, otherwise it may become an indispensable crutch.
           Spotting and working-up require sight that if perfectly free from automation, and when done by anyone whose sight is not normal, and not corrected by glasses, this work will greatly aggravate the weakness. At the slightest sign of strain the lighting conditions should be examined, and if not at fault astigmatism should be needed and the eyes tested. Spectacles, however, are not likely to cure bad light; they will correct the vision and so do away with strain, but that is all.
           Before going any further it may be as well to say that this article does not pretend to deal with its subject from any but a purely photographic standpoint. The many defects of vision caused by such things as nerves, bad blood, cigarettes, etc., are not within my scope, and when a photographer's eyes give trouble it rests with him or his doctor to decide whether his craft is to blame or not; it is always possible that some outside influence is causing the mischief. At the same time, a few remarks on the care of the sight may not be out of place. Tired or overworked eyes can be benefited by bathing, and any chemist will make up an eye-bath cheaply. The simplest and safest of these is boric acid.
           Sight can be greatly improved by country walking, particularly in districts where long clear views prevail. In my own experience I find nothing to equal daily gazing at landscape the foreground of which is mostly green, with distant planes stretching to far off mountains. Unfortunately, we cannot always enjoy this kind of cure for tired eyes, but in any case and at all times it pays a photographer to care for his eyes, even if it means a little extra trouble. This applies particularly to young workers. In the vigor of youth details are not so readily noticed as they are in alter years, and a young enthusiast may go on working in conditions which are bad for the sight without worrying until the mischief is done. Years after it may cost a good deal to undo what a little forethought could have prevented. – THERMIT.

EX CATHEDRA: Complete Development; Colour of Second-hand Lenses; Camouflaging the Camera; Varnishing Negatives.

Complete Development

            The maxim which is rightly emphasized to makers of bromide prints, namely, to develop thoroughly, is one which even now, although it has been repeated over and over again, is largely disregarded. Neglect of it is one of the chief causes of unsatisfactory quality in sepia-toned prints, the results of toning an image which has been rapidly and, therefore, superficially developed being greatly inferior to those in which development has been carried more deeply into the film. One rule which has been given for the guidance of bromide printers is that the time of development should be at leant three minutes, and exposure adjusted accordingly in order that the print at the end of this period of development should not exhibit the effects of over-exposure. But papers and developers having their particular idiosyncrasies, perhaps a more usefully applied rule for discovering whether prints are receiving this "full" development is to immerse half of s print only in the developer, and after the expiration of, say, half a minute to allow the developer to act upon the whole. If, then, development can be continued so as to yield a satisfactory print which does not show a difference between the two halves, the worker may be satisfied that his development u of the required fullness. On the other hand, a difference between the two halves will indicate that exposure can be advantageously cut down.

Colour of Second-hand Lenses.

            Those who are baying secondhand lenses will do well to give the question of colour some consideration. As is well known, long exposure to damp or atmospheric conditions lead to discolor the glass of the lens, or cause the balsam cementing the components to deteriorate with the same result. Some secondhand lenses that we have seen suffer from this very badly, the glass having quite a yellow tinge, in others, though existent, the defect is not so apparent, but if present the marked aperture of the instrument does not represent its actual working speed. We had one inch lens that when examined in a casual way showed little or nothing the matter, but when placed against a sheet of pure white writing paper a slight discoloration was at once noticed Slight though this was, it had a marked slowing action when using ordinary plates, though when orthochromatic emulsions were employed this to a large extent disappeared. Those having such instruments will do well to send them to one of the firms advertising in the advertisement columns of this Journal for repolishing or recementing of the glasses as the case may be, while if buying a secondhand instrument prospective buyers should be on the watch for a defect, which, though it might easily peas unnoticed, reduces the actual value of a lens very considerably. This discoloration is perhaps more frequently met with in the older instruments than in the modern anastigmats, unless these have been very much exposed to bad conditions, but it is a condition of things that all owners of good cemented anastigmats will do well to guard against.

Camouflaging the Camera.

            We commented recently upon the use of the small camera in certain branches of photographic work where its advantages may be turned to good account. A further instance of its value as a supplementary instrument in the studio was told to us the other day by a professional friend. He was commissioned to make a portrait of a child of whom previous experience had taught him that, however pleasing might be the expression on the little sitter's face, it instinctively froze directly the operator made a move towards the camera. The studio instrument was prepared in the usual way, and in front of it was placed a table with piles of books, etc., very carefully arranged to conceal a previously focussed vest-pocket camera, with its shutter set ready for an exposure. The usual attempts were made with the studio instrument and with small hope of obtaining a satisfactory picture. The operator turned away rather disgusted. Almost at once the little sitter was herself again, and casually, as it were, turning to the table the operator pressed down the shutter release of the vest-pocket camera, covering the action as if by taking up a book. As was expected, the exposures made with the studio camera were failures from the point of view of expression, but the small camera yielded a lifelike and pleasing portrait. The negative was carefully enlarged, and the result was an order for some dozens of prints. The idea of camouflaging a small camera should prove of value to those photographers who have to take portraits of nervy sitters, since the exposure may be made at a selected opportunity without the sitter being aware of it. Such a plan should help in overcoming many a difficulty in this respect. Though the negative is small, the quality can be of the best, and the resulting enlargements with a little working-up should give no indication whatever that they are not contact prints from large-sized original negatives.

Varnishing Negatives.

            Few photographers at the present time varnish their negatives, nor when ordinary bromide printing or enlarging is to be the medium is this course really necessary. But when a number of P.O.P. carbon or platinum prints are required from one negative, and the printing is done in the semi-open air for the most part, in damp weather it is a wise precaution to give the negatives a coat of ordinary cold varnish. Many present-day operators, however, find a great difficulty in getting an even coat of varnish over the entire plate by the ordinary method, and if this is not done there is a tendency for the varnish to dry in ridges, which means, of course, corresponding markings on the prints. Varnishing negatives by flowing the varnish on and tilting the plate at various angles until the whole is covered, and then draining the surplus back into the bottle, is an operation that requires a certain amount of skill, which can only be obtained with practice. We have for some time past varnished our negatives with an ordinary camel-hair (or hog-hair) brush. The exact kind is not very important, provided that it is well made and free from loose hairs. For this method, though not strictly orthodox, we may claim that it is comparatively easy to put a light but even coat of varnish on the film. None of the varnish need be got upon the back of the plate, and negatives may be very rapidly treated. Care should be taken not to get the brush too full of the varnish, or uneven coating may result. To those who have had no experience of varnishing negatives this alternative method may be recommended, although the essential feature of it is that a thin coating is rapidly applied.

Fog In The Studio.

           IN many localities, notably in the London district, the state of the atmosphere has left much to be desired from the photographer's point of view. Not only has there been an actual deficiency of light through the presence of more or less yellow fogs, but there has been great difficulty in securing brilliant negatives on days when the light was fairly good, because of the general haziness of the atmosphere. Many photographers suffer from this fogginess without quite being aware of the actual cause of it. A simple experiment which will show in a rough way how much fog is present in any room at various distances can be made with the aid of two ordinary black velvet focusing cloths, velvet being chosen because it has leas reflecting power than any other material in ordinary use. One piece of velvet is crumpled up so that some parts produce deep shadow and put on a table in the position usually occupied by the sitter. The operator then stands by the camera at the distance at which a full-length portrait would be taken, and holds up the other about a foot from his eyes so that it half covers the piece on the table. If there is any appreciable amount of haze present he will find that the deep shadows on the distant piece appear quite grey in comparison with those on the piece which he is holding, and at once finds an explanation of the flat negatives which he has been obtaining.
           Having established the existence of the fog, our aim is now to minimise its effects, and there are many methods by which this end may be partially attained which, when put together, result in a substantial improvement in the quality of the negatives. In the first place, the studio windows should be kept clean, so that as small an area of glass as will give the desired lighting will be needed to obtain short exposures. By thus closing out all unnecessary light we reduce the general illumination of the fog and get a much brighter image. This can perhaps better be seen when working with artificial light. If we build the lamps in with screens or backgrounds so that the light falls upon the sitter only and none reaches any other part of the studio, there are only three or four feet of fog to work through, while if the whole of the studio is illuminated the amount is greatly increased.
           In foggy weather the lighting of the sitter may be more concentrated than is usually necessary, as a more vigorous negative will then be obtained, and printing can be carried on until the shadows are of sufficient depth. Windows become coated with smoke in a day or two in the winter and act as undesirable diffusers, so that it is advisable to clean at least the panes which it is intended to leave unscreened.
           A fairly warm temperature and good ventilation tend to reduce fog and to clear it away quickly. We have often noticed that a room or studio has remained foggy long after it has become fairly clear outside. When the necessary power is available, an electric fan will do much to establish a current of air, which should be directed towards an open window or door. A proper exhaust fan fitted near the roof is the best form, but the portable ones are of considerable value.
           We have already pointed out how the effect of fog may be reduced by cutting out all unnecessary illumination. A further improvement may be made by using a lens of as short a focal length as possible, though not so short as to introduce distortion. Where sufficient length of studio is available, it is now common to use sixteen or eighteen-inch lenses for all-round cabinet work, and it is quite good practice in clear weather. But at other times a tea or twelve-inch lens will be found to give much brighter pictures. As a matter of fact, many photographers have found this out without knowing the reason, and attributed the improvement in brilliancy to some other property in the lens than its focal length. Whatever lens is being used, it should be kept clean. Lenses will get as dirty as windows do in a smoky atmosphere, and will then yield flat images in the clearest light. If a lens has not been kept clean it is interesting to take a negative with it before cleaning and one directly afterwards. In most cases the contrast will be striking. Lenses should be cleaned carefully, a vigorous rob with the corner of the focussing cloth is not to be recommended, as such treatment soon "greys" the surface. An old worn handker-chief, kept in a box free from dost and grit, should be used. If there is a greasy deposit from town smoke, a single drop of pure alcohol may be applied on a tuft of cotton wool, and then the surface quickly polished with the handkerchief.
           Although we are opposed to all “tinkering” methods of development, the judicious use of bromide upon exposures which have been made under adverse conditions is quite permissible. To describe the action of bromide in popular language, we may say that, when used upon an over-exposed or foggily lighted plate, it allows the high-lights to get a start before the shadows begin to develop. If the plate be developed right out this advantage is lost, but as most portrait negatives do not reach this stage there is a decided benefit to be obtained by the use of bromide in the cases we have mentioned. It is necessary to add the bromide to the developer before immersing the plate. Once development has started it is of little, if any, effect. The character of the plates used should also be taken into consideration. Some brands tend to give brighter results than others. These should be chosen for foggy weather, as, although the scale of tones may not be so long, the resulting print is more satisfactory.

Practicus In The Studio: Studio Accessories and Furniture.

           In no respect does the modern style of studio differ more From its predecessors than in the matter of accessories, and we might treat the former in the same way as did the writer of a book on Iceland. A chapter was headed "Snakes in Iceland," and the chapter consisted merely of the words, “There are no snakes in Iceland."
           When we speak of accessories it recalls to the old operator the wonderful combination sets in papier mache on a wooden foundation which gave pedestals, balustrades, stairs, bridges and a host of other things as they happened to be arranged, or the equally wonderful pieces of furniture which professed to represent a piano, a writing-table, a bookcase, and a seat, and deceived nobody. Then we had rocks, stone walls and loose boulders which were sometimes useful, not to mention ships masts, boats, and swings. These have now, happily, found a rating-place in the lumber-room or have helped to relieve the shortage of coal in these upside down times. Still one cannot but help feeling that the accessories themselves were not alone to blame for artificial-looking pictures, the unintelligent and mechanical way of using them being equally to blame. I believe it to be possible that we shall again revert to the use of more accessories in the true sense of the word, when someone finds it necessary to be “original” and to produce something to relieve the severe simplicity of the head and three-quarter length portraits which are now the vogue. The modern portraitist is not likely to fall into the errors of his predecessors, as be has learned to concentrate the interest in his nictures by subordinating unnecessary detail and would not think of making a negative in which the surroundings were as brilliantly and as sharply defined as the figure itself. Although they are somewhat out of favour at present I must confess to a liking for full-length figures, and it is difficult to get these well balanced without introducing something to give the needed spot or mass of light and shadow which makes the composition complete. This is, of course, widely different from the old practice of building a samba of plants and vases round a lady’s figure, so often done by the byegone masters of our art.
           A safe principle for the guidance of those who have to equip a to follow the advice of Ruskin and to have “nothing except what yon know to be useful or believe to be Beautiful.” Do not buy settees or chairs which no sane person would ever admit to a dwelling-house, but select every piece or furniture, whether intended for the studio, the reception-room or even the dressing-room, with a view to its suitability for inclusion in a picture sooner or fact. Variety, it his been said, is the spice of life, and variety in your work can be more easily secured if there is an ample choice in the matter of furniture. You will then steer clear of the error made by en American photographer whose confession I read a few years ago. He specialized in children's portraits, and when the twisted wicker chairs and settees were introduced invested in a fine specimen. Needing a new window display, he made a large canvas-covered panel, and fixed upon it a score or so of his latest and best productions. It was set up in the window and he went outside to judge the effect; when he viewed it he said that all he could see was twenty wicker settees with babies on them. A sadder and a wiser man, he went inside and promptly dismantled the show from which he had anticipated so much.
           Much of the charm of "home portraits" is due to the natural posing and the judicious inclusion of furniture and ornaments which are associated with the sitter in the minds of his friends. A scholar taken in his study appears more at homo than he does against a plain dark background, and in the case of people who, as an old friend of mine said, "are more distinguished by their facial peculiarities than by actual beauty," there is a real advantage in having something beside those "facial peculiarities" to rest the eye upon. In studio portraits therefore we should endeavour to reproduce the homo atmosphere as nearly as possible and to avoid giving the impression that the whole thing is a make-up. If it be desired to make a picture of a man at his writing-table, the general idea seems to sit him at a small polished table with one or two pieces of paper and a small ink-bottle and pen borrowed from the reception-room. Such an arrangement is little better than the Oriental method of arranging theatrical scenery, in which one painting does for ill the scenes, with the addition of a label to tell the audience whether it is a palace or a forest.
           When selecting chairs or settees they should be chosen not for the beauty of their design when empty but for their appearance with a person seated in them. It will frequently be found that the arms are too high or that the curves are such that a graceful pose, especially of the forearm and hand, cannot be obtained. Many chairs are far too low in the seat and have either to be made up with loose cushions or by fitting rather high castors to the legs. It is, however, necessary to have some low chairs for short people, but with ordinary-sized sitters a better pose of the shoulders is obtained by using a chair rather higher than usual. Settees are best of normal height, as in them a more lounging pose is usually wanted, so that all that is necessary is to avoid the special photographic patterns, except those of the garden-seat pattern, which are useful for sketch or outdoor effects. That much-maligned article the pedestal has had its day: it was hard-worked and has earned a rest. It has a useful successor in the flower or vase stand, which is very handy with standing figures, which would look a little lonely without it. It should never be used for the sitter to lean against, but with ladies portraits may be used to support a bouquet or a vase of flowers which the sitter is arranging. It may also be used to hold the busby or helmet of an officer in full dress, to avoid the necessity in the hand or omitting it from the picture, to both of which there are serious objections.
           Children’s portraits permit of the use of many simple accessories, especially for outdoor effects. I made a very useful tree-stump of a lard bucket carefully covered with virgin cork, so as to give the effect, of living bark, the lower ends being well spread so as to appear like roots. This with a cylindrical hollow "log," covered in the same way, afforded many excellent poses and did not look artificial. If the cork had been stuck in anyhow the things would have been useless. When working with these or other outdoor accessories a pail of coarse sawdust, the dirtier the better, is a great help. If a painted floor cloth be laid on the floor and the sawdust it, it looks like sandy earth and will show foot-marks, while it can be piled round the bases of such accessories as I have mentioned.
           A baby-holder is an accessory which should be in every studio that is not exclusively devoted to adults. It may either be of the American or clip variety, in which the child's garments are caught in clips' attached to an upright post, or it may be like a triangular seat with a low bark and a hole through which the child may be held by a person behind. I have found a broad tape, which could be passed round the child's waist and fastened at the back of the holder, a very useful addition. Such holders are, of course, only intended for babies who can just sit up, and could not be trusted in an ordinary chair; besides, it permits the feet to be shown nicely.
           Although I am more inclined to class them with apparatus, certain studio appliances are often called accessories. The head-rest is one and one which I should be sorry to dispense with. Some care is necessary in choosing and handling this instrument. In the first place it should not be heavy, and in the second place it should be simple. What is needed is a support which can be quietly placed behind the sitter (or usually slander), and adjusted so as to give the necessary steadiness. I may say that I rarely place the rest to the head, finding the shoulder or lower part of the neck to be a better position and less embarrassing to the sitter. The number of plates which are wasted on standing poses through "moves" by photographers who consider the head-rest out of date must be enormous. All the moving parts should be kept, like a rifle, bright and oiled where necessary, so that there is no jerkiness in action. Another necessary which I consider indispensable is the head screen. This needs no description, but the covering demands a few words. Most head-screens are covered with a sort of lawn, and this is generally useful; I have also tried light blue nun's veiling, nainsook, and tracing-cloth, as well as butter muslin: these all have different light-arresting powers, and the user must choose for himself if he does not find the stock covering to his liking. A black gauze is sometimes used when it is desired to cut off light without diffusing it. Such a screen is very useful for toning down white draperies without losing the modeling. The reflector also needs no description. As far as its qualities go it should be light in weight, not too large, and capable of being adjusted to various angles. As a rule the surface is too light when purchased, but this defect soon disappears. When the surface gets very grey the material should be, washed, but if it cannot be readily detached from the frame it may have a dressing if Blanco, a sort of pipe clay used by soldiers and for tennis shoes.
           To revert to our original subject of accessories which appear in the picture, I would point out that modern printing and enlarging methods offer such opportunities for control that many of the old negatives which gave meretricious results in albumen or gelatine-chloride would give quite artistic prints upon rough paper with the sharp offensive lights toned down. Uniform sharpness throughout the negative is no longer considered as desirable, so that any falseness of texture in the accessories is not shown in the finished picture. Finally, do not overcrowd your composition; do not use more accessories than are needed. If not needed, do not use them.

PRACTICUS.

Photographic Materials and Processes

[We are glad of the opportunity of publishing the second of the annual reports on progress in photographic manufacture which has been issued by the Society of Chemical Industry. The author is again Mr. B. V. Storr, M.Sc., of the. Ilford Company, to whom students of the technical and scientific side of photography will feel indebted for his analysis of what has been published and accomplished during the period under review, that is to say, the year 1917. We should point out that the reference "J" which figures frequently in the footnotes is to the "Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry." It will, of course, be noted that the report is one which had been completed some considerable time ago. Apparently it is not possible for the Society to bring these reviews out closer to date, although we should have thought that less than a year might be allowed to elapse before the completion of the reviewed period and the publication of the report, - EDS. “B.J.”]

           APARY from work on the production and perfecting of a antisfactory colour cinematograph process, it is probable that the chief photographic effort in the past eighteen months has been towards the improvement of methods particularly adapted to problems of the war. Exactly what has been accomplished in this direction is not yet disclosed to the general public, although some indications have been given in the form of special photographs such as those shown at the last exhibition of the Royal Photographic Society.
           On the whole the general manufacturing conditions have been getting gradually more and more difficult, although in some directions there has been an easement. Bromides, which reached a maximum price of about 25s. per lb. in 1816, have settled down again to about 5s per lb., while silver, which reached a record price of just over 4s. 6d. per os. troy, has dropped again to some what nearer its normal price. Gold chloride, on the other hand, has increased in price by about 25 per cent. Gelatine and all kinds of paper have been getting steadily scarcer and dearer, and owing to their own particular circumstances the manufacturers have found difficulty in maintaining their former standard. The condition of the glass market has compelled manufacturers to make use of renovated negative glass. The general effect of the entry of the United States into the war is not yet fully evident, but it appears highly probable that supplies of some of the raw materials will be still more restricted.
           The general position on some smaller though essential points has improved greatly. In addition to metol substitutes, metol itself is now being produced in this country as well as p-aminophenol, which latter is also being made in Canada; in Australia the manufacture of pyrogallic acid and amidol has been undertaken by a department of the government. The position in enemy countries is not known with certainly, but the patented process of Pape to resuscitate old developers by the addition of alkali is suggestive. Shering improves baryta-coated papers by a farther coating of albumen, and Luppo-Cramer makes the suggestion to improve packing papers by impregnation with manganese dioxide.
           The production of sensitizing dyes to replace those in general use before the war has been successfully accomplished by W. J. Pope, under whose direction are now being made, for Ilford, Limited, sensitol red and green (German punacyanol and pinaverdol) and a new sensitizer, sensitol violet, in addition to erythrosin and a number of dyes used for making photographic light-filters. These are being need both in this country and in the United States.

Negative Processes.

           There is little of actual progress to record in negative processes. The attempt to increase the effective speed of X-ray plates is being made in several directions, but no serious advance can as yet be reported. Baker increases X-ray speed by the use of two intensifying screens, one in front of the film, very transparent to X-rays, and one behind the film less transparent; Edwards for the same purpose proposes to coat celluloid film on both sides with emulsion. Paris and Picard have extended their patent with respect to phosphorescent substances to include the use of phosphorescent zinc sulphide as a substratum screen, a film of gelatinous alumina being precipitated on the sulphide to prevent contact with the sensitive coating.
           La Rougery has patented the production of a special negative paper by high-temperature calendering and pressure and Hudson the process of using an ordinary white paper or card for negative purposes, prints being obtained by reflected light. Sosna and Biedebach have extended their list of dyes used to prevent dark-room fog. etc., to include phenolphthalein, which turns red in alkaline developers – a process very similar in principle to the old method of using a dye in the developer.
           Several of the processes of manipulation have received considerable attention. Crabtree, of the Kodak Research Laboratory, has a paper on development high temperatures such as are frequent in tropical countries. The chief hardening agents are formalin, alum, and chrome slum, which may be employed before, during, or after development; the method recommended is to use a p-aminophenol developer, which causes very little swelling of the gelatine, followed by a plain fixing bath, a chrome-alum fixing bath, or a formalin fixing bath according to the temperature. In the experiments 95°F. (35°C.) was taken as the maximum which need be considered. An interesting method of using a two-solution developer is given by North, who treats the plate first with the solution of reducer and then with the alkali, a method which has the effect under suitable conditions of restraining the denser parts of the image and allowing full development of the light tones. p-Phenylenediamine or quinol with ammonium chloride is recommended as developer hen fineness of grain is desired, the slight solvent action of these substances on the silver salt assisting in this direction; Koch and du Prel, however, attribute the effect to a development of part only of the silver bromide granule. Brewater patents the use of the same developer, combined with nitrate, for development of a wide range of exposures; Loth substances were, of course, known already as preventives of reversal when present in the film during exposure.
           Ross, for the production of stellar images, recommends the use of a quinol and alkali hydroxide developer as giving clean-cut images, a practice in agreement with that of process workers. In this connection some experiments of Campbell and Turner are interesting. The former, by measurements of spectrograms, obtained smaller readings for the separation of pairs of lines than were given by Rowland's tables. The latter got a similar effect in crossed images of a reseau when the lines approached within a certain limiting distance and suggests some mutual effect between the images; it would be interesting to know to what extent this effect could be explained by a disturbance of the mass centres of slightly separated images by reason of the overlapping of the fringes between them, and also whether an actual slight displacement of the lines towards one another is produced in the drying of the plates by reason of the hardening of the film between the lines as compared with that on either side.
           Hechstetter has patented a combined developing and fixing bath which contains thiosulphate and glycerine, with citrate apparently as restrainer.
           The general question of fixing and washing has been examined by Elsden and Warwick. The former determined the rate of removal of thiosulphate from a gelatine film by successive washings and found no evidence of adsorption. The actual time necessary for complete removal will of course depend upon the amount of thiosulphate present, but chiefly upon the rate at which equilibrium is attained between the film and the washing water, this being a function of the nature of the gelatine film and temperature. Warwick found the same general rule to apply and examined also the behaviour of papers, where the absorbent base complicates the problem, and the method of washing in running water. In a further paper Warwick considers the rate of removal of the silver salt by thiosulphate, the normal law being again followed. The rate is dependent on the strength of the hypo solution, a maximum being reached at about 40 per cent, and a zero rate at saturation point. He used a silver sulphide tint, method for estimating the quantity of silver. His general conclusion as to the correctness of the advice usually given to fix for twice as long as is required to "clear" the film is combated by the Editor of the “Photographic Journal of America," who found that thorough washing completely removed all the silver from plates taken from the fixing bath immediately all turbidity had disappeared.
           Weinhandler and Simpson patent a method of destroying thiosulphate and salts of weak sulphur acids by means of hypochlorite produced by the electrolysis of sodium chloride solution containing prints or negatives.
           Bainbridge recommends the permanganate test as the most delicate for thiosulphate, an indication being given by degradation of tint even at a dilution of 1 in 15,000,000; the mercurous nitrate test is more affected by common impurities and indicates only up to 1 in 2,000,000.
           A considerable amount of discussion has centred round the properties of various reducing solutions, a desideratum being a reducer having an effect proportional to the depth of image. Huse and Nietz, following up a suggestion of Deck, examined the effect of combined permanganate and persulphate, and also that of hypochlorite, both reducers being nearly proportional. Becher and Winterstein have examined the action of iodine both alone and combined with thiourea and with cyanide; they give also a general classification of the best known reducers. Greenal examined mixtures of thiosulphate and persulphate, which are much steadier in action than persulphate alone. Gear calls attention to the preserving action of potassium bromide, manna, and glucose on ferricyanide solutions. Smith recommends ammonio-copper sulphate in place of ferricyanide now that the latter is so expensive.
           A paper (by Crabtree" describes the variation of flash powders with their composition, both as to the metal and the oxidiser used, with the fineness of division of the metal and with the arrangement when fired. A mixture containing sodium oxalate, red phosphorus, a metallic powder such as magnesium or a mixture of magnesium and aluminium, and a substance such as strontium nitrate, is patented by him for the Eastman Kodak Co.
Wedekind has patented the use of metals such as zirconium, thorium, and titanium, mixed with their nitrates or chlorates for the production of smokeless and odourless flash-powders.
           Crowther has examined the chemical reactions involved in the chromium intensification process first suggested by Eder and afterwards modified and expanded by Piper and Carnegie in 1905. With Eder's original formula in which a higher proportion of acid is used than in any of the modifications suggested and which leads to only slight intensification, there does not appear to be any chromium compound attached to the bleached image. In the case of the other three formula given by Piper and Carnegie, where the intensification obtained increases as the proportion of acid is reduced, the amount of attached chromium also increases; in the extreme case this appears to be partly chromium hydroxide and partly chromium trioxide, the latter imparting a brown colour, and in the other cases only the hydroxide.

Positive Processes.

           The supply of platinum is still too limited for it to be available for photographic purposes. General Thayer is said to have discovered a considerable source of it in the Adirondacks, but that has not yet materialized. The Platinotype Company have introduced "Palladiotype" in which palladium is used to give effects very similar to those of platinum, and the use of palladium as a toning agent for collodion paper facilitated by a bath which contains ammonium chloride, sodium glycollate, and succinic acid and does not require a special fixing bath, has been recommended by Valenta. The latter has also investigated the properties of salts of diglycollatoferric acid from which an excellent blue printing paper can be obtained, but of poor keeping qualities. Valenta also draws attention to the fact that Sulzberger's patent on the use of ferrocyanide (mentioned in the last report) was forestalled by Fox Talbot in 1839 and that the process was mentioned in Eder's Handbuch.
           Strasser has worked out a toning method with the use of Schlippe's salt; Schering has improved his original selenium toning bath. Nietz and Huse have worked out in some detail the possibilities of obtaining sepia tones by the use of strongly restrained developers. Very few papers give good tones by this process; the best results are obtained by a chlore-quinol developer containing bromide and metabisulphite and necessitating an increase of exposure of from 75 to 100 times that required by normal developers.
Spitzer and Wilhelm have patented a combined toning and fixing bath containing tellurous or telluric acid or their salts along with thiosulphate.
           Two patents for transfer processes have been brought out, one by Pin for film in which coconut oil soap is the chief stripping agent, and one by Kent and Middleton for paper, using paraffin wax. A transferotype bromide paper on similar lines has been introduced by the Kodak Co.
           In process and allied work, Bull, Smith, and Turner have a paper on some of the intricacies of the half-tone process, Fishenden on the photographic engraving of rollers for intaglio printing, and Crabtree on the advantage of using citric and oxalic acids respectively in the preparation of zinc and aluminium plates for lithographs. Dorian has patented the use of a half-tone screen competed of small lenticular grains, preferably coloured (see also Knudson; Ann. Rep. 1. 303). Rieder obtains an intaglio printing surface by forming a screen surface in bichromated fish glue and getting a positive over that in caoutchouc and asphalt; Orans, for ease of correction, prints on emulsion coated on a serrated surface of the type of a Levy screen on celluloid or celluloid on glass.
           Meadway uses a mixture of naphthalene and a white metal, with rubber as adhesive, as costing for a projection screen, while Bebbington coats a support such as glass, gelatine, or waxed paper with a dull blue-coloured solution and projects on to that aide, the audience facing the other side.
           An interesting account is given by Warburg of the work of Meissling on the me of dyes such as erythrosine and auramine as hardening agents in the carbon and gum processes, an effect which is attributed to the formation of formalin. The erythrosin preparations are said to be quite equal to those containing bichromate and to have better keeping qualities.

B.V. STORR, M.Sc.

Assistants' Notes: A Camera Repair-Outfit; The Tyro's First Camera.

A Camera Repair-Outfit.

           ONLY one photographer have I ever met who habitually carried a repair-outfit when going on outdoor jobs, and his practice consisted principally in twelve by ten and whole-plate work at a distance front his headquarters. It is an idea that is well worth following, because, although the occasion for its use may never arise at all when out on a job, there is always the possibility of an accident when the means of a make-shift repair may save the job. In addition to this, there are cases when the movements of the camera are strained to their limits to include an extremely high building, or for other reasons that will occur to all outdoor operators. On such occasions as these a little slackening or even temporary removal if a few screws will prevent that strain and permit of a little extra extension of the movement.
           There is no reason why the repair outfit should be larger than those supplied for cycles. A small screwdriver, as sold for watch-makers, sewing-machines, or fretwork will be the largest item, then a small drill bit or bradawl fixed in a handle, obtainable at any fretwork shop, and a tiny half-round file will complete the list of tools. A small screw eye or two are often handy in several ways and take the place of a gimlet. A small assortment of screws, steel pins or needles, a small tube of fish-glue, and a bit of strong thread or "flex," can all be packed in a little tin, and will cope with almost any emergency.–CHARLES.

The Tyro's First Camera.

           IT is a curious fact that most people who obtain a camera (either by purchase or as a gift) soon begin to wish for some other kind. Now, every girl or boy who taken up photography as a living ought to have a camera. No one gets the real enthusiasm for the work that will get him on if he is satisfied with printing from other folks’ negatives.
           The best all-round camera to start with for pretty well every possible reason in a quarter-plate stand-camera with a double extension an ordinary R.R. lens, and a simple shutter, preferably a roller-blind. In addition to being the right sort of camera to learn most things from in a practical way it has several other strong advantages. One is that the necessary focusing and other operations preliminary to exposing the plate foster a care for ensuring that all this trouble will not be wasted by wrong exposure and careless afterwork. A magazine camera has exactly the opposite Thus, from the very start with the stand camera one gets a bigger and far more encouraging proportion of successes.
           Next, the tyro is sure, contrary to the oft-repeated text-book advice, to try his hand at portraiture, and the ability to focus properly is essential for this work. One more reason for the choice recommended, and a very strong one indeed, is that at the second-hand dealers' this particular type of camera is least in demand and a bargain can often be secured, so that the initial outlay need not be great. The buying of the second camera, when the beginner’s inclinations begin to indicate the most suitable type of instrument, will therefore be not such a costly matter, and the original quarter-plate camera will be found useful for many years afterwards, for lantern-slide making, or to form part of a copying or enlarging installation.–KINGSTON.

EX CATHEDRA: Photographic Survey of London; The "Vest Pocket”; Non-photographic Side Lines; Vignetting Bromides; Drying Press Negatives.

Photographic Survey of London.

           The communication from the Camera Club, which we print upon another page, sets forth what is truly a very ambitions programme, no less than a comprehensive survey, in the form of photographs, of London at the present time. Until the opportunity ocean of learning, from the booklet which is shortly to appear, the contemplated organization of the undertaking it is clearly impossible to form an estimate even of its possibilities. But, at any rate, it may be thought that a scheme of which one first hears in March must call for an enormous and well-disciplined body of workers if it is to achieve its end of recording the face of London in the Peace year 1919. At the best of times it is difficult to stimulate an interest in the making of records which an to serve our descendants, and while we cannot too highly value the interest which the Camera Club is showing in this work, we are bound to think that some extraordinary army of photographers will need suddenly to be brought into existence if the aims of the promoters are to be realised.

The "Vest Pocket” Commercial Operators.

           There are occasions when a high-grade small camera, far from being a toy, may be of very real service to the photographer placed in exceptional circumstances. The fact that these instruments are fitted with lenses of short focus and wide aperture, and thus give good definition over many varied planes of distance without recourse to stopping down may often be of real service. A case in illustration of this point was told to us some time ago by a commercial worker. He was commissioned to make a series of pictures in a factory, which was rather poorly lighted, of certain pieces of machinery. A the work would have necessitated the use of a lens well stopped down in order to gain the required definition, and as the stoppage of the machinery was an important factor the operator took with him a vest-pocket camera. This he found rave all the definition required, and fine definition without stopping down the lens. The result was that the pictures were taken in a very short time, as the worker was enabled to use the lens working at f/6 instead o. one stopped down to f/22. Enlarged prints were made that gave the customer entire satisfaction. The same operator at a later period had to obtain a view of an old country house in the North of England for an estate agent, and the subject required could only be satisfactorily photographed from a narrow ledge of dill about a foot or eighteen inches wide. This was obviously impossible with the field camera, but, not to be beaten, the operator took his vest-pocket camera, carefully worked his way to the spot, and then, holding on to a bough with one hand, operated his camera with tie other, using the instrument at eye level. The result was a new and striking picture that had a material value in wiling the estate. Though, of course, not to be looked upon as a universal instrument, the modern vest-pocket camera fitted with a good anastigmat will often prove of very real value to the commercial operator when he is faced with difficult subjects. Provided care is given to obtaining a satisfactory negative there is no reason why, with a little working up, the resulting photographs should not be equal, and they may even be superior to contact prints from large negatives.

Non-photographic Side Lines.

           From one or two professional photographers during the past few days we have received letters asking for suggestions for other business, within the technical capacity of a studio establishment, which they might take up. While such enterprise has been undertaken, within our knowledge, by one or two photographers, it is difficult to make general suggestions, since very much will depend not only upon individual craftsmanship but upon the local demand for such articles of manufacture as may be produced. However, it may be worth while to mention the instance of a firm of Scottish photographers who have taken up, we believe with considerable success, the designing and making of toys, whilst in Kent is to be found a photographer who has specialised in the manufacture and design of fancy leather goods, such as calendars, and blotters, and whose work, as we have seen it at the British Industries Fair, possesses merit of a high order. It was first shown at the Fair of some two or three years ago, and as the exhibit is included also in this year's Fair it may be supposed that the project has turned out to be profitable.

Vignetting Bromides.

           Those who have cause to complain of the hardness of outline of bromide prints exposed in one or other of the customary machines may be glad of one or two hints which, if taken, will go a very great way towards removing a defect of this kind. One is to cut the vignetting card from the corrugated board sold for packing. If the 'board be cut so as to give a bevel edge to the opening, the corrugations will provide a series of serrations which make for softness in the print. The second hint is to interpose a sheet of fine ground-glass midway between the vignetting card and the negative. Most printing machines will allow of a frame being inserted between the vignetter and the negative, so that the glass can be introduced in the required position without adjustment, and as quickly removed; when unvignetted prints are required. The glass, of course, cuts down the light, but in these days when light of almost any power can be obtained from electric lamps this is a matter of small moment.

Drying Press Negatives.

           A method of quickly obtaining negatives in a condition for printing and enlarging, which is less known than it deserves to be is that discovered some seven or eight years ago by M.M. Lumiere. It consists simply in soaking the washed negative for about five minutes in a saturated solution of potassium carbonate. The effect of this treatment, quite contrarily from what might be expected, is to produce a temporary condition of hardness of the gelatine film, permitting of the negative being rubbed dry with a clean, dry cloth, after which it can be immediately printed from or enlarged. The readiness with which a negative is obtained in this state requires being the subject of trial before it be appreciated. On taking out of the carbonate solution the film seems to be covered with a film of grease, but very quickly polished with a cloth. We should not care to keep negatives in this condition if value is attached to them, for obviously, in the case of retention of such a hygroscopic salt as potassium carbonate, the film must remain moist, and such a condition is bound to aggravate any causes of impermanence which may arise from imperfect fixation. Moreover, we have come across plates which showed a tendency to strip from the glass under this treatment, and, therefore, on both accounts the negatives should be washed for a few minutes and dried in the usual way as soon as their immediate purpose has been fulfilled.

The Value Of Expression In Portraiture.

           A matter to which many portrait photographers do not give the consideration that it merits, is the expression of the sitter's countenance at the moment of the exposure. In my experience and observation the one thing more, perhaps, than any other single quality, which secures approval or disapproval of a portrait, is the sitter's expression. I was speaking in this sense recently to an old photographer, now a director of a firm having several studios of good class, and he replied that he would undertake to build up a business by attention to the matter of the sitter's expression, when on technique he could not do so. It is not to be supposed that the speaker thinks slightingly of the importance of good sound photography. He recognizes, as I do, that that should be the foundation on which our work should be based, but that for securing the satisfaction of our patrons he considered the presentation of a pleasing expression to be the most important factor.
           To some extent the desirability of securing an agreeable expression in a portrait has been recognized from the early days of professional photography. A stock wheeze of the "comic" papers has been to represent the photographer as telling the sitter to "look pleasant." There may be photographers who use this formula; I don't remember that I ever did so. A sitter, unless in the case of a skilful actor, does not look pleasant to order. I have often known a fond mother say to her baby or young child when ready for the sitting, or even before that, "Now laugh, laugh." I have never known this to succeed. The child is too young either to understand the injunction, or to be able to take the part of an actor and assume an expression not actually in accordance with its feelings. Some playful antic on the part of the photographer is much more likely to produce the desired effect. I have often found a little game of Peep-bo to succeed in attracting baby's attention and in securing an interested expression. With sitters other than infants, conversation will naturally be the means employed. With boys a little discussion as to the relative appreciation of trigonometry and football or cricket will often induce an amused expression, but here some tact is desirable. An opening sentence or two will generally show the direction into which to guide the conversation. The leading principle is not to tell the sitter to assume any particular expression, but to say or do something likely to evoke it.
           With adult sitters, tact and the avoidance of anything like taking a liberty are of the highest importance. I have known a photographer, thinking to chase away a mournful expression, tell a lady not to look as if she were in a consumption, only to be crushed by the reply, "Perhaps I am."
           A photographer ready to turn to advantage any little incident that may occur may often succeed in obtaining a happy expression that will secure a good order from the negative. One such case that occurs to me is that of a young lady of German parentage, born or long domiciled here (this occurred long before the war). The young lady had good features, but when posed for the photograph assumed a stern, almost forbidding, expression which ordinary conversation failed to remove. Presently, however, her mother said something to her in German, on which I joined in with "Ach! Wenn ich nur Deutsch verstehen konnte!" (Oh! if only I could understand German!), which, being spoken in the language of which ignorance was assumed, so tickled the lady that she burst out laughing. When the ripples of laughter had subsided but an amused expression still hung about the features, a very successful portrait was secured. With French sitters, of whom there hare been a good many this year, I have found that a little conversation in their own language generally induces an interested expression even if they speak English well, and particularly if they do not do so.
           Since commencing to write this article I happened to be in the studio of a photographer who does a high-class business at good prices - he refuses altogether to take negatives for postcards when a lady came in bringing with her a friend for a sitting. The lady complimented the photographer on her own portrait, which she said was the only one that she had with a satisfactory expression, and that she was really rather ashamed of having given away such a large number of her own portraits. Depend upon it, there is more in the value of the expression in portraiture than most photographers realise.

W. E. DEBENHAM.

Practicus In The Studio: The Camera and Lens.

           The selection of the studio camera and lens, or rather lenses, for it is a serious handicap to have to work with one only, deserves the most careful consideration, and in comparison with other items a liberal allotment should be made when planning your outlay. A badly made camera or an inferior lens will soon cause the loss of more money than is saved on their cost, and will do much to brand the work turned out as second class or worse. The operator should never work with the feeling that he could do better if he had better apparatus. Now I do rot want to convey the idea that such apparatus should necessarily be costly, and as an instance of this I may say that I recently selected for a young friend a 12x10 outfit, comprising camera, studio stand, a 12 in. f/4 portrait lens, and a 5 D. Dallmeyer f/6, at a total cost of less than 25, all being purchased from well-known London dealers.
           Broadly speaking, there are two models of studio camera: the British pattern, as made by Hare, Watson, and several other makers, and the German model, which has been extensively copied by English makers. For practical purposes there is little to choose between them. When choosing a camera it is desirable to have one which is not permanently built into its stand, as in the case of any accident to the latter the whole outfit is rendered useless; besides this, it is impossible to get the camera near the floor, which is often necessary when taking children's portraits.
           Movements’ essential to the studio camera are rack and pinion or screw focusing. Personally I prefer the latter, although it is considered rather out of date now, as it never gives trouble by becoming loose and allowing the back to move, besides being conveniently placed in a fixed position. There should be vertical and side wings to the back and a rising front; the bellows should be of ample length, bearing in mind that lenses of much greater focal length are now used than was formerly the case. Twenty-four inches is not an uncommon length, so that for a 4*(1/2)-in. head on a 12 x 10 plate we require an extension of 36 ins. This should not be lost sight of if one is offered an otherwise suitable camera of old pattern, although the defect may be remedied by fitting a cone extension or "box front." Whatever camera is selected it should be well cared for and not allowed to become covered with the black greasy patches one too often sees. In passing I may remark that ordinary spirits of turpentine is an excellent medium for cleaning dirty woodwork, and an hour's work with it, followed by some good furniture cream, will often make a camera and stand look worth 50 per cent, more than when you started.
           It is very usual to fix repeating backs so that two half- or quarter-plates can be used side by side. This is a survival of wet plate days, when it was no more trouble to coat and sensitize a whole-plate than one-half or quarter the size. I think that the American plan of "one slide, one exposure" much more handy and safe. Many of the American studio stands have racks on either side, one for unexposed and the other for exposed, a dozen or more cheap single slides each for a 7 x 5 (American half-plate) being supplied with the camera. Double exposures can then only be made by the grossest carelessness. Another "Yankee notion" which is a good one is to make the pushing of the slide into the exposing position open the shutter. This has been improved upon by Messrs. Dallmeyer, who introduced a back in which double flap exposing shutter slipped along with the slide, so that the lens did not require covering before the slide was opened; this saves much time. In my opinion, any camera-maker who would supply such a device fitted with a number of cheap slides would find his reward. Think of the convenience of being able to make a couple of dozen exposures without having to refill.
           If the ordinary stands do not seem satisfactory to you, the platform style, of which the Hana and the Semi-Centennial are the best known examples, will probably meet all requirements. In these a Platform carrying the camera travels between two uprights, and the camera may be placed as high as an ordinary person can see to focus at or lowered to a few inches from the floor, the castors should be rubber-shod, and, if possible, a brake fitted, so that there is no risk of moving the camera when inserting the slide. The lens shutter is an important feature in studio apparatus, and the rubber fittings thereof have probably conduced to more profanity than all the rest of the outfit. I like the feel of a ball and tube while it is in good condition, but that is usually only for a brief period before it begins playing tricks before an important sitter. The Bowden wire cable or "Antinous" release is much move reliable, and would be better if the bicycle cable were used instead of the weaker form- usually fitted. The pressure button, too, is particularly annoying, as one cannot grab it anyhow as one can the rubber bulb, but must get hold of it just right between the fingers. It would .be quite easy to make a pear-shaped handle to work like the rubber one, and if the makers want a sketch for it I will send them one, but that will probably not be till the patent has expired.
           Now for the shutter itself, after having relieved my feelings about releases. The best shutter I have ever used, and I think I have worked with nearly every pattern, is an American one, the Packard Ideal There are several shutters, none British, of this pattern, which are probably nearly if not quite as good. It is made on the sector principle, with vulcanite leaves, and the working parts are balanced, so that very little pressure is required to actuate it. Let me confess it works best with a rubber ball and tube, the only disadvantage of which is that the rubber is too hard and the ball splits; still, if you substitute a good English bulb this trouble vanishes. The next best shutter is the velvet flap, originally introduced by Mr. James Cadett and still in use in the majority of studios under the name of the Guerry shutter. Why an English shutter had to be made in France and sold under a French name I cannot say, but so it is. The hemispherical bellows, or Grundner's shutter, is fairly satisfactory, but the interior bellows is troublesome. With the Antinous release it is much better, although the leather bellows which forms the shutter is easily injured by a. careless operator; still, on the whole, it is a good shutter.
           No less important than the camera is the lens; in fact, although with a faulty camera and a good lens we may produce excellent results, it is impossible to reverse the conditions and do so with a faulty lens upon the finest camera. The requirements of different studios vary so greatly that it is difficult to suggest the most suitable all-round selection. The length of the studio is an important factor, and I feel that I cannot do 'better than to refer the reader to the table dealing with the subject in the B.J. Almanac. Next in importance is the type of lens. Of late years there has been a growing tendency to oust the time-honoured Petzval or Dallmeyer types in favour of the rapid anastigmats. There are two sides to the question, and these have been little discussed. The anastigmat is unquestionably far superior to the portrait lens, when tried to its fullest extent, but it loses this position when only a small portion of its field is being utilized, as its cost is much greater and its qualities are wasted. If I were selecting lenses for a short studio, say, an eight-inch for cabinets and a twelve-inch for whole-plate standing figures, my choice would be an f/4.5 anastigmat of the desired focus, but if I could use a fourteen or sixteen-inch lens for cabinets I think that I should go for a portrait lens, which I could get at much less cost and which would possibly be fitted with a "diffusion of focus" adjustment. One point which I would specially impress upon the purchaser is to choose as long focus a lens as his studio will accommodate for the greater part of the work to be done. If the studio be very short, so that a 6*(1/2) or 7-inch lens has to be used for full-length cabinets, it is better to obtain at least a ten-inch lens for heads and half-lengths and to get a smaller lens for the full lengths. There are now some very cheap Anastigmats which work well, with apertures of f/6 to f/7.7, to be purchased at prices which were formerly charged for common foreign rectilinears, and these will answer for short-focus portrait work.
           There is a growing demand for soft definition in portraiture. By this I do not mean absolute fuzziness such as some selecting committees used to revel in, but a general softening of outline and suppression of small detail without loss of texture. To secure this many lenses have been introduced, and I have made negatives with most of them. The majority give too great an amount of diffusion at full aperture, and when stopped clown to reduce this exposures are unduly prolonged. For the everyday professional who wishes to make an essay in this direction I would suggest the use of the "patent" portrait lens of Dallmeyer, the recent portrait lenses of Ross, and the Cooke portrait lens. All these have adjustments which allow of any degree of diffusion up to a certain point being introduced at will, while in the case of the Ross and Dallmeyer lens a further stage may be attained by removing the back combination and using the front lens per se and in situ. There are many nameless portrait lenses, very bad as a whole, which would make excellent soft focus lenses if the back combination were taken out and lost. It should be remembered that the front lens of a portrait lens usually requires only slightly more than double the exposure of the complete lens, and not four times, as is the case with a rectilinear. The focusing eye-piece or magnifier is a very useful little adjunct to the camera outfit, as it saves eye strain and makes for certainty in focusing, especially in copying. One of fairly good quality of the Ramsden pattern will be found most satisfactory, as the field is flat and the definition good. The cheap forms with single lenses have too much spherical and chromatic aberration to be used by anyone not skilled in optical observation, and those who are would not give them house room.

PRACTICUS.

Buying Equipment

           STARTING a photographic business resembles in many respects setting up housekeeping; that is to say, there is a natural tendency to spend an undue proportion of the sum allotted for the purpose on certain big items and to stint on less showy but more essential details in other words to purchase suite- and decorations for the reception and perhaps the bedrooms, and to neglect the kitchen and scullery. In the photographer's case this has its equivalent in buying a large and elaborate camera outfit, a quantity of furniture and backgrounds, and making shift with inferior appliances in the dark and printing-rooms.
           An experienced chemist once said that when equipping a laboratory it could be assumed that after finding the cost of the principal pieces of apparatus, which the inexperienced imagined represented the bulk of the outlay, an equal amount should be allowed for sundries, which need not be purchased all at once but as required. We recently found confirmation of this judgment in the remark which a beginner in portraiture made in reply to a question as to how the business was progressing. It was to the effect that the takings were quite satisfactory, but that he had not received much benefit, as there was always something else to buy.
           If a little more judgment had been exercised in the first outlay there would have been a surplus available, and the profits of the first few months would not have been swallowed up as quickly as they were made. In our friend’s case success came quickly, and he could live and still get what was needed; bat very often it takes some months before running expenses are covered and anything that can be called a profit made.
           There is always a temptation to go in for a big studio camera. A twelve by ten with lenses to suit is usually the minimum, but the old hand knows that this size is now rarely required for direct portrait work in most studios, an, therefore, economise by getting a good whole-plate outfit and keep something in hand for the outdoor apparatus, which should be of the larger site. Any panel portraits or studio groups can be quite well taken with a good field camera and lens and in other cases large prints ran easily be made by enlarging. We are apt to forget that developing papers are now almost exclusively used, and that if only a moderate size is required there is no need to mention the fact that the prints are not made by contact. This brings us to the question of enlarging apparatus. Wherever it is possible this should be installed from the first, as it will soon save its cost, and it is preferable to select the lantern form instead of a daylight apparatus however, the latter is better than nothing. and even a fixed focus box giving an enlargement of two diameters will be found of treat value, as it enables a cabinet negative to be enlarged to twelve by ten almost as easily as the making of a contact print. As an example of the value and practicability of enlarging we may mention an order for a number of full-sized reproductions of pen-and-ink designs. These were photographed upon half-plates, and enlarged to fifteen by twelve. The difference in the price of the small and large plates made a very substantial increase in the profit on the job, and the customer was not a penny the worse.
           Great economy can be effected by properly equipping the dark-room, especially now that so much bromide work is done. Plenty of sink accommodation should be provided, and if lead be found too costly asphalt sheeting can be used as lining. It should be remembered that bench room can always be obtained by covering a sink with boards, but it is impossible to reverse the process. An efficient lamp with red and yellow filters is needed, and it is a good plan to provide a second one for the general illumination of the room; this will prevent many break-ages. A good printing box taking negatives up to whole-plate is almost a necessity nowadays even in the smallest business, for the little man who has to do every stroke himself must not have to waste time with printing frames. An ample number of dishes for developing, fixing, and washing should be provided, the larger ones being of wood lined with some waterproof material, and the smaller ones of porcelain. Vulcanite and celluloid are best avoided for professional work.
           We may now return to the studio, and consider the question of backgrounds. Where it is possible one end wall should be finished so as to serve as an interior; in addition, we require a very dark and a white ground with continuous floor cloth. When funds permit a piece of bold-patterned tapestry may be added, but scenic backgrounds are not needed except for the cheapest class of work. Chairs and tables should be, as a rule, light and dainty, such as people use every day, and not specially designed for photographic use. A heavy oak chair is a useful accessory when it is necessary to take the mayor or other celebrity.
           In the work-room especial care should be taken to facilitate output. It never should be necessary to clear the apparatus necessary for one operation before another can be started. There should be places for attaching tissue, trimming, and mounting, and these spaces should never be encroached upon.
           Retouching desks should be ample in size and firmly made. Anyone with the least .mechanical ability can make a good desk in an hour or two, always bearing in mind that the desk is made for the use of a human being and not for a negative. It is absurd to talk about quarter-plate and half-plate desks when they are supposed to accommodate a well-grown man or woman.
           It is necessary to decide what to buy before entering the dealer's portals, or it is likely that a lot of unnecessary stuff will be obtained. The purchaser should know better than the salesman what he requires. and it is only natural for the latter to try and shift such goods as are rather slow in selling. We shall not harm the dealer by this advice; his bill will come to the same, but if the tyro makes his own choice he should get what he really needs.

Assistants' notes: Celluloid Facing; Photography with the Royal Engineers; Ply Wood

Celluloid Facing.

           PHOTOGRAPHIC miniatures, which are so popular with the working-classes, are easily made; the important factor is the time taken up. By means of the card repeating back four pictures are made on a quarter-plate. Sometimes the original requires the background painted out with Chinese white, or a few touches put in with lamp black water-colour to make a bold effect. Of course, these touches are sponged off after making the negative, which should be on the contrasty side. Four (pictures are made on one piece, of glossy paper to give sharp detail, and then coloured by dyes. Celluloid facing gives an enameled appearance, and by its attractiveness helps the ale. For cementing without hot rollers use 4 parts methylated spirit, 1 part amyl acetate. Do not increase the amyl acetate unless the celluloid is thick. This is best for gelatine papers, such as glossy P.O.P. and bromide. Do not use this with collodion papers, as it dissolves the image. Cut a piece of celluloid a little larger than the print, put a few drops of above in the middle of same, then press from the centre all round outwards, in contact with blotting-paper. By making the facing little larger than the print the excite cement reach the blotting-paper and does not get on the face of picture spoiling the high gloss. With a little practice the right number of drops will be found, and no air bells formed. Major's cement, which is gelatine dissolved in glacial acetic acid, is more suitable for collodion papers, is slow in working, and if you use this cement for glossy P.O.P. and the picture should slip in the pressing down, you will find the acid has softened the image and the movement blurred the picture. Collodion papers are not suitable for dye work. - BURLINGTON.

Photography with the Royal Engineers.

           ACCOUNTS of the part that photography has played in the war have so far been written principally in terms of aircraft observation While no doubt this branch has employed more men and material than any other, and has been both organized and advertised in the energetic and efficient way characteristic of the Air Force, there has been a vast deal of photography done in connection with other departments that should not be lost sight of in considering photographic war-history. The work of official photographers of a kind hat used to be done by war correspondents is, of course, also well known as is the development in radiography; but the photography can-led out by men of the Royal Engineers has been not only extensive and varied in character, but it has not met with the recognition that its importance and quality deserves.
           ACCOUNTS Of work that takes the operator well up into the danger zone is the making of panoramic views of enemy trenches and territory. Then there is "sound-ranging." This is a marvelously ingenious and scientific method of locating enemy guns very exactly. The apparatus was invented by a Frenchman and improved by us, and as the Germans have never succeeded in capturing an instrument nor in remotely approaching the idea in efficiency, this has been a great factor in our success. The part of the photographer in this branch calls for decreasing knowledge and skill as the instrument is improved, but it calls for mention in a record. This is only one of the many rapidly growing activities of a Field Survey Battalion. These unit's are more generally known in the Army under the concise and expressive name of "Maps."
           Enormous quantities of maps are plotted, drawn, and printed "in the field," and the photographer has his share in reproducing them to various scales, both on wet and dry plates, including, of course, panchromatics. Many of the workers are old “Ordnance Survey” men, but they are not now by any means in the majority. Besides the operators there are men who print the line negatives on to zinc plates for the lithographic printers, and those who print in special variable details by true-to-scale processes. Then there are the highly skilled "glass engravers," as they style themselves, or "negative-scratchers," as would-be humorists call them. Their work, delicate and tedious, done principally with a finely sharpened needle and a magnifying glass, is at its best compared with ordinary commercial retouching as the latter is to scene-painting.
           In a published account of the success of the Intelligence Corps were mentioned, in passing, the expert photographers as assisting in its work. These also are men of the Royal Engineers. The field of photography even here is varied enough to try the skill of the best. Copying and printing in large numbers portraits of suspected persons is only one small item. These often have the unmistakable appearance of being already copies of the third or fourth generation - if I may use that expression and badly done at that; so that to make good printing negatives to give useful results is not always easy. Copying documents and posters to be used in convicting enemy officers of illegal executions is work that one could take pleasure in, notwithstanding the weird colours and crumpled conditions of some of them. Photographing parts of captured mechanism for various departments is frequently required, and even work of very technical and experimental character is successfully coped with, although it will be recognized that material, when it arrives at the place of use, often has already had a long history of careless handling and bad storage behind it, and, therefore, cannot always be considered as of all category. - D. CHARLES.

Ply Wood.

           THREE-PLY wood is now available for photographic purposes, the various restrictions having been - withdrawn, and is a useful material for either carbon transfer or for mounting enlargements. Card-board mounts require a further hacking of wood when framed, whereas a picture mounted on ply wood would go straight into the frame, having a nice appearance at the back; so if we take this advantage into account the price will compare favorably with card-board. Ply wood is made in various woods, up to seven-ply for special use, but for mounting purposes three-ply birch, which can be had "free from knots one side," 'will answer studio requirements. The albumen in the wood, by steam treatment, is made somewhat insoluble; though some call it "waterproof three-ply,” it certainly is less absorbent than the ordinary sort, and less liable to wood-worm. It does not split like ordinary panels, is superior to canvas, as holes cannot be knocked through it, can be got any size and cut any size, stretchers are dispensed with, and is the material the old masters would have welcomed with open arms. - BURLINGTON

EX CATHEDRA: Phase and Change; Strong v. Saturated Solutions; Commercial Flower Photography; Field Camera Bellows.

Phase and Change.

           While much is being talked of reconstruction on the grand scale, in the comparatively small field of photography we see things changing as the inevitable result of the circumstances of the time. The balance between the supply of and demand for labour - if that can be called a balance which a few months ago showed the latter to be immensely in excess of the former has been disturbed, and signs are plainly discernible of a reversion to the pre-war conditions under which the supply, or, at any rate, the publicly offered supply, was greater than the demand. It is easy to understand that the progress of demobilization in conjunction with the new labour which has been recruited daring the war should tend towards this condition in the ranks of photographic assistants. And the same thing is observable in respect to the firms or individuals who cater for photographers trade work. Such who have come into existence during the war now find themselves in competition with the demobilized ones who formerly had their established circle of customers, and are now taking active steps to recover their business. The circumstance provides a caution to those who may be thinking of purchasing a war-created business of this kind. A connection is difficultly held, and from several motives customers will be likely to return to those who previously had their patronage. The difficulties of supply, and, in many cases, the lower quality of work during the war period are factors which will operate in the direction of restoring custom to those who previously had it, and for this reason a business which is no more than two or three years old becomes a somewhat speculative proposition.

Strong v. Saturated Solutions.

           The keeping of certain chemicals saturated solutions is a recommendation which comes from the old days of photography when workers had a nodding acquaintance with practical chemical operations. At the present time, when such knowledge is the possession of a very small minority, the practice may lead to a degree of error which may not be suspected by the individual worker. Few will take the trouble to test the temperature of a saturated solution or to make certain that it is saturated at that temperature. And even if that is done, an awkward calculation is necessary in order to discover the quantity of solid chemical which a given volume of the solution represents. On these accounts it is a much better plan, we think, to sacrifice a measure of the concentration afforded by a saturated solution and to obtain in exchange the certainty of constant strength and the convenience of translating from solution to solid. To put this idea into a concrete shape, a saturated solution of hypo is one which varies greatly in strength according to the temperature, and at any given temperature represents per unit volume an odd weight of the chemical. A much more satisfactory and convenient plan of keeping hypo in concentrated solution is to dissolve the crystals in water and make up to a volume corresponding with twice the weight for example, 1 lb. of hypo dissolved in water to form a total bulk of 32 ozs. One ounce of hypo is then contained in every two ounces of the solution and the making up of fixing baths of any required strength becomes the simplest of arithmetical calculations. The same plan may be adopted for less soluble substances, choosing a ratio of 1:3 or 1:4 in place of the 1:2 which is possible only for such extremely soluble substances as hypo, potassium carbonate, and a few others.

Commercial Flower Photography.

           One of the most difficult branches of commercial photography is the portrayal of flowers, fruit, or vegetables for catalogue illustration, yet it is work that is frequently in demand. A good knowledge of florists, flowers and horticulture generally will go far to helping the operator in emphasizing just those points that the grower or advertiser wishes to put forward to his public. Perhaps our meaning may be the more plain if we give a simple illustration, taking the case of that popular flower the sweet pea, one, which it may be added is constantly being improved by various growers who are rapidly coming to see that one of the most direct, simple and effective methods of advertising the value of their new varieties and bringing their good points before flower-loving connoisseurs is a good photograph of a perfect bloom. Among the points looked for in the perfect sweet pea are the number of flowers that can be grown upon a single stem, their spacing upon the stalk, the length of the latter, a most important point, the size of the individual blossoms, and in connection with this an absence of what is technically termed "coarseness," and lastly the colour of the flowers. If a photograph of a perfect bloom selected at some trouble by a fastidious grower is to be a success then it will have to be something more than an ordinary hit or miss photograph of the bloom, and it will need to be arranged so that the points of the flower are shown to their best advantage. Thus the adjustment of the bloom in its holder or vase is important, likewise the position from which the picture is taken, and the rendering of its texture. In the case of vases of flowers, much the same rules will have to be followed as in the case of single specimens: nothing in the way of a "bunchy" arrangement is to be permitted. Backgrounds are best made of large sheets of mounting card of various colours, and these may also be employed for growing plants out of doors in isolating the subject from its background. Upon the technical side little need be said. An ordinary field outfit having long extension and a good lens of fairly long focus is as good an equipment as can be desired, since, except in the case of flowers growing outside, speed is not of importance. Of course, panchromatic plates and a set of screens are to be regarded as absolutely essential in order to secure correct colour rendering. A thin negative having abundant detail is best, those obtained by the tank method being highly satisfactory. It is becoming realised that a photograph is more satisfactory than one of the best drawings; colour photography is likely to popularise this branch still further, and commercial photographers should take full advantage of the demand.

Field Camera Bellows.

           The modern field camera is locked upon, and justifiably so, as an instrument of precision, and in many ways it is difficult to see how the standard design can be improved. There is one point, however, that is frequently overlooked by designers and that is the importance of fitting their instruments with bellows of sufficient width. Not only do wide bellows avoid trouble due to reflected light from their inner folds, but also it is next to impossible when using wide angle lenses of short focus to avoid some "cut off" of the image on the plate by the edges of the bellows, particularly when these are made to give a long extension. This form of trouble is the more likely to be met with in the conical bellows form than when the instrument has parallel bellows. For the latter type we must confess we have a preference, but even when conical bellows are in use there is no reason why the maker should not fit them of sufficient size to prevent the trouble referred to. Some cameras that we have seen leave much to be desired in the size of their bellows, and we can call to mind one of our own instruments that could never be used with success for wide angle work for this reason. Such a fault in an otherwise excellent design is spoiling the ship for ha'porth o' tar. When the bellows are made for long extension there is often a tendency for them to “cut off” part of the image when used at a shorter extension, and for this a loop of elastic is sometimes fitted to the top of the bellows in order to draw away the extra folds from the line of rays thrown by the lens. We have found in practice that this plan is not very satisfactory, and have supplemented the loop with two more, one at each side, which are attached to the nuts holding the swing front. In this way the extraneous folds are drawn entirely out of the way. When old bellows are inclined to sag in the middle at a long extension, a couple of loops of extra length attached in the same way will go far to overcome the trouble.

The Education Of Assistants.

           Our title has nothing original about it, it has figured pretty frequently in the "Journal" lately, but as the question seems in rather a nebulous state, it is perhaps in order to inquire what it really means. In other trades it is not usual to employ the wide and comprehensive term assistant, but to specify the branch in which the employee is to be engaged. In letterpress printing, for example, we have compositors, linotype operators, machine minders, and warehousemen, and in each division a man is only expected to be proficient in his particular work; but in photography, except in very large establishments, this is not the case, and an' assistant is expected to be able to turn his hand to any job which happens to come in his way, or in other words, if the reputation of the studio is to be kept up, to be as good an all-round worker as his principal and a better one in some particular section. That there are such assistants we very well know, and the photographer who secures the services of one is to be congratulated.
           Now before starting any education scheme it would appear to be necessary to define the various classes of assistants and to set up some standard of proficiency for each. Another important paint to be settled is that of remuneration, so that a youth or girl entering the profession should know what wage can be looked forward to when he, or she, has qualified as proficient. Many things besides scientific knowledge and practical proficiency are called for in everyday work. We have known amateurs capable of turning out prints which would do credit to any studio in the kingdom, but their pace has been hopelessly slow, and no employer could afford to keep them. Nothing but practice in a busy place can give the necessary smartness, and it is a question how this is to be obtained.
           The old practice of engaging a juvenile as a sort of messenger and general helper with more or less opportunity to pick up knowledge of photography will obviously be out of the question under the new regime. Proper teaching should start at the outset, and it is difficult to see how this is to be obtained in many localities. Let us take the case of an intelligent lad living in a small country town who wishes to become a photographer. The only course that is open to him is to obtain work in the local studio with a man who can just manage to make a negative and print it sufficiently well to pass muster with a not too critical class of customers. When the lad begins to want a living wage he looks further a field, only to find that he is one of the incompetents whose existence we all profess to deplore, but who provide a source of cheap labour for the sweaters who, as in all other trades, are found in photography. If we are to have well-trained assistants there must be sufficient inducement for them to be trained in the same way as chemists, engineers, lithographers, or dental mechanics, by a proper system of apprenticeship or pupilage, supplementing their workshop practice with a part-time training in the scientific aspect of their work. The latter cannot be given in a house of business without serious waste of time, so that something on the lines of the Fisher scheme of education must be adopted, and it is for the masters to co-operate with the local authorities to secure this. But such a scheme is only workable with very young people; after the age of eighteen it is very difficult to find that readiness to assimilate knowledge that is natural to the schoolboy. It is easy enough to teach youngsters of fifteen to eighteen such subjects as elementary chemistry, optics, or even art principles, but if those three precious years have been wasted, the mind takes another turn, and learning becomes laborious. Moreover, a bad way of working is acquired, and this is often felt to be sufficient. There is now also the sex question to be considered, as a great change is coming over photography by the invasion of women into almost every branch. Are the assistants of the future to be male or female? Already men returning from army service are finding that situations are not so easily obtained as they had expected, and we look for still further developments in the same direction. Only a few years ago, and women were considered as greatly inferior to men as retouchers. What is the position now? The same thing going on in other branches printing, dark-room work, and even in studio operating - the only field in which male labour is unchallenged being that of outdoor work.
           Still, male or female, we must have assistants, and the initiative for their training must come from the master photographers. Their first problem will be to find instructors, the second to find a body to hold examinations and grant certificates of such a degree of proficiency that the holder can secure a standard, wage. In the organization of the chemists and druggists we have an excellent model. In this profession a youth enters as an apprentice, is given time for study, usually takes a course under a coach, and finally passes his minor and major examinations before he can hope to attain a position as a “qualified assistant.” One of the greatest factors in producing a shortage of good assistants is the ease with which a competent worker can start on his own account in a small wav. If we can offer such terms as will keep good workers in their situations we shall have accomplished much.